Concealed carry laws in the United States operate on two layers: federal statutes decide who may never possess a firearm and identify places where no permit lets you carry, and each state controls its own permit system, training requirements, location restrictions, and self-defense rules. A permit from your home state does not automatically travel with you, and even in the 29 states that allow permitless carry, federal prohibitions and other states’ laws still apply the moment they become relevant.
What Counts as Concealed
A firearm is concealed when it is hidden from the ordinary observation of someone nearby: the outline isn’t visible through clothing, a bag, or a vehicle compartment. A holstered pistol under a jacket qualifies. So does a handgun tucked under a car seat or inside a glove compartment.
Courts look at visibility and accessibility together. A gun locked in a trunk or a separate cargo area you can’t reach from your seat is generally not treated as concealed carry, even though it is technically hidden, because transporting a secured, inaccessible firearm falls under different rules than carrying one you could draw in seconds. When the facts are ambiguous, courts evaluate the totality of the circumstances rather than applying a bright-line test.
Who Is Federally Prohibited from Carrying
The Gun Control Act of 1968, codified at 18 U.S.C. § 922, sets the federal baseline. No state permit overrides it. Under § 922(g), the following people cannot possess any firearm or ammunition:
- Anyone convicted of a crime punishable by more than one year in prison, regardless of the actual sentence.
- Anyone convicted of a misdemeanor crime of domestic violence, which since 2022 includes offenses against a dating partner, not just a spouse or cohabitant.
- People subject to a qualifying domestic violence protective order that includes a credible-threat finding or explicitly prohibits the use of force.
- Anyone involuntarily committed to a mental institution or found mentally incompetent by a court.
- Users of controlled substances, including marijuana, which remains federally illegal regardless of state medical or recreational laws.
- Fugitives from justice, people who have renounced U.S. citizenship, those dishonorably discharged from the military, and anyone under indictment for a felony.
The penalty for a prohibited person who possesses a firearm is up to 15 years in federal prison under 18 U.S.C. § 924(a)(8).1Office of the Law Revision Counsel. 18 USC 924 – Penalties That ceiling was raised from 10 years by the Bipartisan Safer Communities Act of 2022, which also expanded the domestic violence disqualifier to cover dating relationships and enhanced background check procedures for buyers under 21.2Congress.gov. Bipartisan Safer Communities Act
The marijuana prohibition catches some carriers by surprise. Under 18 U.S.C. § 922(g)(3), anyone who is an “unlawful user of or addicted to” a controlled substance cannot possess firearms, and marijuana has no federally recognized prescription.3Office of the Law Revision Counsel. 18 USC 922 – Unlawful Acts Lying on ATF Form 4473 about drug use is a separate federal crime.
How States Issue Permits
State permit rules changed significantly in June 2022, when the Supreme Court decided New York State Rifle & Pistol Association v. Bruen. The Court struck down New York’s “proper cause” requirement, which had forced applicants to show a special need for self-defense beyond what any other citizen faced.4Supreme Court of the United States. New York State Rifle and Pistol Association Inc v Bruen The decision directly reached New York, California, Hawaii, Maryland, Massachusetts, New Jersey, and the District of Columbia. Those jurisdictions can still require permits, but the criteria must now be objective: age, training, background check. Discretionary “good cause” screening is no longer allowed.
Permitless Carry
Twenty-nine states now allow permitless concealed carry for anyone who is not a prohibited person, with the minimum age ranging from 18 to 21 depending on the state. Permitless carry stops at the state line. If you drive from a permitless state into one that requires a permit, you need one. That is why many gun owners in permitless states still obtain a permit, purely for use in other states.
Reciprocity
Reciprocity is the arrangement under which one state honors another state’s permit. It is not uniform. Some states honor every out-of-state permit. Others recognize only permits from states with comparable training or background check standards. At least 10 states and the District of Columbia honor no out-of-state permits at all. When you carry in another state, that state’s laws apply to you in full: its list of prohibited locations, its rules about alcohol while carrying, and its standards for the use of force. Your home state’s rules give you nothing across the border.
Training, Fees, and Renewal
Most permit states require training before issuing a license. Classroom instruction typically runs eight to sixteen hours and covers safety, self-defense law, and conflict avoidance. A range component usually follows, in which you show you can load, fire, and holster the weapon safely and hit a target at set distances. The goal is basic screening, not marksmanship: instructors watch safety habits as closely as accuracy.
Some states offer tiered permits, where a basic permit requires less training and an enhanced permit with broader reciprocity requires live-fire qualification and additional coursework.
Permits generally last four to eight years. Initial application fees run from about $100 to over $400, with renewal fees usually lower. Some states accept a shorter refresher course at renewal instead of full retraining, and background checks typically recur at renewal, sometimes between renewals as well. Letting a permit lapse usually means starting the application over, so tracking your expiration date matters.
Where You Cannot Carry Under Federal Law
Some locations are off-limits regardless of your permit, your state’s laws, or whether your state allows permitless carry.
School Zones
The Gun-Free School Zones Act at 18 U.S.C. § 922(q) makes it illegal to knowingly possess a firearm within 1,000 feet of a school. The prohibition doesn’t apply if you’re licensed by the state where the school zone sits and that state requires law enforcement to verify your qualifications before issuing the license.3Office of the Law Revision Counsel. 18 USC 922 – Unlawful Acts Unloaded firearms in a locked container also fall outside the prohibition. The 1,000-foot radius is larger than most people realize; in urban and suburban areas, school zones overlap constantly with public roads, parking lots, and commercial districts.
Federal Buildings and Courthouses
Possessing a firearm in a federal facility carries up to one year in prison under 18 U.S.C. § 930, or five years if the weapon was intended for use in a crime. Federal court facilities carry a separate penalty of up to two years even for simple possession.5Office of the Law Revision Counsel. 18 USC 930 – Possession of Firearms and Dangerous Weapons in Federal Facilities The restriction covers parking areas and walkways controlled by the federal government, not just building interiors.
Post Offices
Postal property is a flat no. Under 39 CFR 232.1(l), firearms are prohibited on postal property, openly or concealed, regardless of permit status, except for official law enforcement purposes.6eCFR. 39 CFR 232.1 – Conduct on Postal Property Parking lots are included.
Airports
Bringing a firearm to a TSA security checkpoint triggers civil fines and a criminal referral. Loaded firearms draw TSA penalties from $3,000 to $12,210, with repeat violations reaching $17,062; unloaded firearms draw $1,500 to $6,130.7Transportation Security Administration. Civil Enforcement Local criminal charges depend on the jurisdiction. You may transport a firearm in checked luggage if it is unloaded, locked in a hard-sided container, and declared at the ticket counter, but the sterile area past security is off-limits.
National Parks
Since 2010, federal law has allowed firearm possession in national parks as long as you comply with the laws of the state where the park sits and are not otherwise prohibited.8Office of the Law Revision Counsel. 54 USC 104906 – Protection of Right of Individuals To Bear Arms Possession is allowed; discharge is not, except in narrow circumstances like authorized hunting, under 36 CFR 2.4.9eCFR. 36 CFR 2.4 – Weapons, Traps and Nets Federal buildings inside a park, such as visitor centers, remain subject to the § 930 prohibition.
VA Property
Veterans Affairs facilities are another restricted zone. Under 38 CFR 1.218(a)(13), no one may carry a firearm on VA property, openly or concealed, except for official purposes. The penalty is a $500 fine.10eCFR. 38 CFR 1.218 – Security and Law Enforcement at VA Facilities A valid permit does not change this, and neither does constitutional carry in your state.
Common State-Level Location Restrictions
States add their own off-limits lists on top of federal rules. Specifics vary, but certain locations show up across many jurisdictions: courthouses, polling places on election days, schools and daycares, houses of worship (unless the congregation permits it), hospitals, bars and restaurants that serve alcohol, government meetings, and private property posted with no-firearms signage. Violations range from a civil infraction to a criminal charge depending on the state and whether you knew about the restriction.
Private businesses can also ban firearms from their premises in most states. In some states, carrying past a properly posted sign is criminal trespass. In others, the worst outcome is being asked to leave, with trespass charges only if you refuse. A permit is not a universal access pass.
Self-Defense Rules That Govern Actual Use
Carrying legally does not mean you can use the firearm whenever you feel threatened. To justify using force in self-defense, you generally have to show that the threat was imminent, that your belief force was necessary was reasonable when judged by what a reasonable person in your position would have perceived, and that the force you used was proportional to the threat.11Legal Information Institute. Self-Defense You also cannot be the initial aggressor. If you started the confrontation, most jurisdictions strip you of the self-defense claim entirely.
Retreat, Stand Your Ground, and the Castle Doctrine
States split on whether you must try to escape before using deadly force. In duty-to-retreat jurisdictions, you must attempt to withdraw safely if you can. At least 31 states and some territories have eliminated the duty to retreat through stand-your-ground laws, letting you use deadly force in any place you have a legal right to be, without first attempting to leave.12National Conference of State Legislatures. Self-Defense and Stand Your Ground
The castle doctrine sits between the two. Even in states that otherwise require retreat, you generally have no duty to retreat from your own home, and some states extend that protection to your vehicle or workplace.13Legal Information Institute. Castle Doctrine Which rule applies is not academic. It is the difference between a justified shooting and a manslaughter charge, and the state you are standing in at the moment of the incident controls the analysis, not your home state.
Traffic Stops and Duty to Inform
Some states impose a legal duty to inform: during any official contact, including a traffic stop, you must immediately tell the officer you are carrying a concealed weapon. Failing to disclose can bring fines, permit suspension, or revocation depending on the state and whether it is a first offense. Other states only require disclosure if the officer asks.
Whatever your state requires, the practical approach is the same: keep your hands visible on the steering wheel, calmly state that you have a permit and are carrying, and follow instructions from there. Never reach toward the firearm. If it is in a glove compartment or console, tell the officer before reaching for your registration or insurance. Carry your permit and government-issued ID whenever you are armed; most states require both on your person and require you to present them on request.
Liability After a Shooting
A legally justified shooting does not end your legal exposure. Even a clean self-defense case can produce both criminal proceedings and civil lawsuits, and the two are independent.
On the criminal side, investigators evaluate whether your use of force met your state’s standards: imminent threat, reasonable belief, proportional response, and in duty-to-retreat states, whether you tried to withdraw. A prosecutor’s decision not to charge you, or a jury acquittal, does not stop the person you shot or their family from suing for damages. Civil cases use a preponderance-of-the-evidence standard rather than beyond a reasonable doubt, so a jury can find you financially liable for the same act a criminal jury found justified.
Some stand-your-ground states extend civil immunity to people who use justifiable force, but the protection varies. In some states the immunity is an affirmative defense that must be raised and proven at trial, not a complete shield from being sued. In others, an injured bystander may still have a claim even if the attacker does not. Legal costs for defending yourself, even successfully, can reach six figures, which is why self-defense liability plans have become common among regular carriers. Those plans typically cover criminal defense fees, civil defense costs, bail bond expenses, and sometimes lost wages during proceedings.
LEOSA for Qualified Retired Officers
The Law Enforcement Officers Safety Act, at 18 U.S.C. § 926C, lets qualified retired law enforcement officers carry a concealed firearm nationwide, overriding most state and local carry laws. To qualify, you must have served as a law enforcement officer for at least 10 years in aggregate (or separated because of a service-connected disability after completing any probationary period), left the agency in good standing, and not been found unqualified for mental health reasons.14Office of the Law Revision Counsel. 18 USC 926C – Carrying of Concealed Firearms by Qualified Retired Law Enforcement Officers
LEOSA also requires annual firearms qualification at the officer’s own expense, certified by the state of residence or a qualified firearms instructor. You must carry both your agency-issued photographic ID and your qualification certification. LEOSA does not override restrictions on private property where the owner prohibits firearms, and it does not override state or local government property restrictions. It grants no law enforcement authority; it is a carry privilege only.