The executive branch of the federal government is organized around fifteen departments named in 5 U.S.C. § 101: State, Treasury, Defense, Justice, Interior, Agriculture, Commerce, Labor, Health and Human Services, Housing and Urban Development, Transportation, Energy, Education, Veterans Affairs, and Homeland Security.1Office of the Law Revision Counsel. 5 USC 101 – Executive Departments Their leaders make up the President’s Cabinet, and together the departments employ roughly two million civilians and handle everything from tax collection to national defense.
That order is not alphabetical. It follows the year each department was created, starting with State and Treasury in 1789 and ending with Homeland Security in 2002. Congress alone can add, remove, or reorganize a department; a President cannot create one by executive order.
What Each Department Does
State
The State Department manages foreign relations and operates embassies and consulates at roughly 270 posts worldwide. Foreign Service officers work across political, economic, consular, and management tracks.2U.S. Department of State. Foreign Service Officer The department also negotiates treaties and issues passports.
Treasury
Treasury handles federal finances. Its largest bureau, the Internal Revenue Service, collected nearly $4.7 trillion in revenue in fiscal year 2023.3Internal Revenue Service. The Agency, Its Mission and Statutory Authority Other bureaus manage the national debt, produce currency, and administer economic sanctions.4U.S. Department of the Treasury. Bureaus
Defense
Defense directs the Army, Navy, Air Force, Marine Corps, and Space Force. The fiscal year 2026 budget request totaled roughly $848 billion, making it by far the largest department by spending.
Justice
Justice enforces federal criminal and civil laws. The Attorney General oversees the department, with authority vested by 28 U.S.C. § 509.5Office of the Law Revision Counsel. 28 USC 509 – Functions of the Attorney General Components include the FBI, the DEA, and the Bureau of Prisons. The President also appoints a U.S. Attorney for each of the 94 federal judicial districts, each serving a four-year term subject to Senate confirmation.6Office of the Law Revision Counsel. 28 USC 541 – United States Attorneys
Interior
Interior manages public lands, natural resources, and wildlife. The National Park Service operates more than 430 park sites. The department also handles federal trust responsibilities to tribal nations and manages offshore energy resources.
Agriculture
USDA supports farming, ensures food safety, and runs rural development programs. Its Food Safety and Inspection Service is responsible for the safety of meat, poultry, and egg products sold in the United States.7Food Safety and Inspection Service. Meat, Poultry and Egg Product Inspection Directory The department also administers SNAP, which provides food benefits to over 40 million people.8Food and Nutrition Service. Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program
Commerce
Commerce promotes trade and gathers economic and environmental data. It houses the Census Bureau, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, and the Patent and Trademark Office.9The United States Government Manual. Department of Commerce Census data shapes congressional redistricting and federal funding formulas; NOAA runs the National Weather Service.
Labor
Labor enforces workplace protections, including the Fair Labor Standards Act, which sets the federal minimum wage and overtime pay requirements.10U.S. Department of Labor. Wages and the Fair Labor Standards Act The Occupational Safety and Health Administration conducts workplace inspections, and the department oversees state-run unemployment insurance programs.
Health and Human Services
HHS is the principal federal health agency. It runs Medicare, which covers people 65 and older and certain individuals with disabilities, and jointly funds Medicaid with the states for people with limited income.11U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. FAQs Category – Medicare and Medicaid HHS also includes the CDC, the FDA, and the NIH.
Housing and Urban Development
HUD works to expand homeownership and affordable housing. It administers rental assistance programs and enforces the Fair Housing Act, which prohibits discrimination in housing based on race, color, national origin, religion, sex, familial status, and disability.12U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development. Fair Housing – Rights and Obligations
Transportation
DOT oversees highways, railways, aviation, and transit. Its Federal Aviation Administration regulates all aspects of civilian aviation.13US Department of Transportation. Aviation Other agencies within DOT set vehicle safety standards, regulate pipelines, and distribute federal highway funding to the states.
Energy
Energy manages nuclear weapons programs, funds energy research, and oversees environmental cleanup of legacy nuclear sites. It runs a network of 17 national laboratories conducting research across physics, computing, biology, and climate science.14Department of Energy. Office of Science National Laboratories
Education
Education administers federal student financial aid, collects national education data, and enforces civil rights laws in schools and universities that receive federal funding.15U.S. Department of Education. Office for Civil Rights Its Office for Civil Rights investigates discrimination complaints at institutions serving more than 79 million students.
Veterans Affairs
The VA provides health care, disability compensation, and education benefits to military veterans. It operates roughly 170 medical centers and over 1,000 outpatient facilities, making it the largest integrated health care system in the country. The GI Bill helps veterans pay for college, vocational training, and other credentialing programs.16U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs. VA Education and Training Benefits
Homeland Security
DHS was created by the Homeland Security Act of 2002 in response to the September 11 attacks and began operations in March 2003.17Department of Homeland Security. Creation of the Department of Homeland Security It consolidated border security, immigration enforcement, disaster response, and transportation security under one roof. Key components include Customs and Border Protection, the Coast Guard, the Transportation Security Administration, and the Federal Emergency Management Agency.18Department of Homeland Security. Operational and Support Components
How Department Heads Are Appointed
Most department heads carry the title of Secretary. The one exception is Justice, whose leader is called the Attorney General, a title dating to the Judiciary Act of 1789.19Department of Justice. About the Office of the Attorney General The appointment process is the same for all fifteen.
The President nominates a candidate, and the Senate must confirm that person before they can take office. The requirement comes from the Constitution’s Appointments Clause, which gives the Senate an advice-and-consent role over principal officers of the United States.20Congress.gov. Article 2 Section 2 Clause 2 Nominees typically face public hearings before the relevant Senate committee, and a simple majority vote on the Senate floor completes confirmation.
Once confirmed, a department head serves at the pleasure of the President and can be removed at any time for any reason. This is a key difference from independent agency heads, who often have statutory protections against removal.
The Constitution itself never names a single department. Article II, Section 2 refers to “the principal Officer in each of the executive Departments,” but leaves the list to Congress.21Constitution Annotated. Article II Section 2 The same clause is the historical root of the Cabinet, which the Constitution does not explicitly establish. Presidents may also grant cabinet-level rank to officials outside the statutory fifteen, such as the heads of the Environmental Protection Agency or the Office of Management and Budget, but those officials do not lead executive departments as defined by law.22The White House. The Cabinet
When a Seat Is Vacant
Cabinet positions frequently sit empty between administrations or after a resignation. The Federal Vacancies Reform Act of 1998 sets the rules for filling them temporarily. By default, the departing official’s first assistant steps in. The President can also designate any Senate-confirmed official from another agency, or a senior employee at or above GS-15 who has worked at the department for at least 90 days.23Office of the Law Revision Counsel. 5 USC 3345 – Designation of Acting Officer
Acting officials generally cannot serve longer than 210 days, though that window extends to 300 days from Inauguration Day during a presidential transition. If a nomination is pending, the acting official may continue serving while the Senate considers it. Any official action taken by someone not properly serving under the Vacancies Act has no legal force and cannot be ratified later.24U.S. GAO. FAQs on the Vacancies Act
Line of Succession to the Presidency
Cabinet secretaries also matter for presidential succession. Under 3 U.S.C. § 19, if the Vice President, Speaker of the House, and President pro tempore of the Senate are all unable to serve, the presidency passes to cabinet secretaries in the order their departments were created: State, Treasury, Defense, Attorney General, Interior, Agriculture, Commerce, Labor, Health and Human Services, Housing and Urban Development, Transportation, Energy, Education, Veterans Affairs, and Homeland Security.25Office of the Law Revision Counsel. 3 USC 19 – Vacancy in Offices of Both President and Vice President A cabinet member can only succeed to the presidency if they meet the Constitution’s eligibility requirements and were confirmed by the Senate before the vacancy arose.
Independent Agencies Are Not Departments
The fifteen departments are not the entire executive branch. Dozens of independent agencies operate within it without being classified as executive departments. The Environmental Protection Agency, NASA, the Central Intelligence Agency, and the Social Security Administration are all independent agencies. Their leaders do not appear in the statutory list at 5 U.S.C. § 101 and, with limited exceptions, do not hold the title of Secretary.1Office of the Law Revision Counsel. 5 USC 101 – Executive Departments
The practical difference is presidential control. The President can fire a cabinet secretary at will. Many independent agency heads serve fixed terms and can only be removed for cause, such as neglect of duty or misconduct. Independent agencies are also more likely to be led by multi-member boards or commissions with staggered terms and bipartisan membership requirements.
Who Controls the Departments
The President manages these departments, but Congress creates them. Each was established by a separate act, from the State Department in 1789 to the Homeland Security Act of 2002.26Congress.gov. HR 5005 – 107th Congress (2001-2002) – Homeland Security Act of 2002 Congress sets each department’s annual budget through appropriations, defines jurisdictional boundaries through authorizing legislation, and can restructure or abolish a department entirely. Committees conduct oversight hearings, demand testimony, and investigate whether programs are operating as intended.
Departments also write federal regulations. Congress often passes laws in broad terms and leaves the technical details to the relevant department, and those regulations carry the force of law once finalized under the Administrative Procedure Act.27Office of the Law Revision Counsel. 5 USC 553 – Rule Making The departments answer to the President on policy and to Congress for their money and their legal authority to exist.