There are more than 200 federal courts in the United States. The core of the system is small and easy to name: 94 U.S. district courts, 13 U.S. courts of appeals, and the Supreme Court of the United States. Around that core sit 90 bankruptcy courts attached to the districts, plus a handful of specialized tribunals that handle narrow subject areas. Together they make up the federal judiciary established under Article III of the Constitution and expanded by Congress under Article I.
The Three-Tier Core
Almost every federal case moves through the same three levels. Trials happen at a district court. Appeals go to a circuit court. A very small number reach the Supreme Court.
94 District Courts
District courts are the trial courts of the federal system, and they hear the widest range of matters, from federal criminal prosecutions to civil rights suits to challenges to federal regulations.1United States Courts. About U.S. District Courts Under 28 U.S.C. ยง 1331, they have original jurisdiction over civil actions arising under the Constitution, federal statutes, or treaties.2Office of the Law Revision Counsel. 28 U.S.C. 1331 – Federal Question
The 94 districts are laid out geographically. Eighty-nine sit within the 50 states, one covers the District of Columbia, and four serve U.S. territories: Puerto Rico, the Virgin Islands, Guam, and the Northern Mariana Islands.1United States Courts. About U.S. District Courts Every state has at least one district. California, New York, and Texas have four each. No one has to cross the country to reach a federal courtroom.
13 Courts of Appeals
A party that loses at the district level can seek review from one of the 13 federal courts of appeals. Twelve are regional circuits, each covering a cluster of states or the District of Columbia. The thirteenth, the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit, has nationwide jurisdiction over specialized areas such as patent disputes and international trade.3Office of the Law Revision Counsel. 28 U.S. Code 41 – Number and Composition of Circuits
Appellate courts do not retry cases. A panel of three judges reviews the trial record and written briefs to decide whether the district court applied the law correctly, and its rulings bind every district court in the circuit. On rare occasions the full slate of judges on a circuit will rehear a case en banc, usually when the panel’s decision conflicts with Supreme Court precedent or another ruling from the same circuit.
1 Supreme Court
The Supreme Court sits at the top, and its rulings bind every court in the country. Nine justices serve on the Court: one Chief Justice and eight Associate Justices.4Supreme Court of the United States. Justices Congress fixed the number at nine in 1869, and it has stayed there since.5Supreme Court of the United States. The Court as an Institution
The Court receives thousands of petitions each year and agrees to hear only a small fraction. Under the “Rule of Four,” at least four justices must vote to take a case before the Court issues a writ of certiorari and schedules argument.6Federal Judicial Center. The Supreme Court’s Rule of Four Once the Court rules, no further appeal exists in the domestic legal system.
90 Bankruptcy Courts
Every federal district has a bankruptcy court attached to it, for a total of 90 nationwide. Bankruptcy courts operate as units of the district court system rather than as independent courts.7United States Courts. About U.S. Bankruptcy Courts They handle filings under the three most common chapters of the Bankruptcy Code: Chapter 7 liquidation, Chapter 13 repayment plans for individuals with regular income, and Chapter 11 reorganizations used mostly by businesses. They process hundreds of thousands of cases a year.
Specialized and Legislative Courts
Beyond the three-tier hierarchy and the bankruptcy courts, Congress has created several courts to handle narrow categories of cases. Some are Article III courts with life-tenured judges. Others are Article I “legislative courts” whose judges serve fixed terms.
Article III Specialized Courts
The U.S. Court of International Trade resolves disputes over customs duties and international trade regulations. The U.S. Court of Federal Claims hears monetary claims against the federal government, including contract disputes and Fifth Amendment takings cases. Judges on both courts are nominated by the president and confirmed by the Senate, like district and circuit judges.8United States Courts. Types of Federal Judges
Article I Legislative Courts
Congress has created a separate group of courts outside the Article III framework to handle specific subject areas.9Justia. Legislative Courts The most prominent are:
- The U.S. Tax Court, which hears disputes between taxpayers and the IRS over deficiency determinations and other tax matters. It operates under Section 7441 of the Internal Revenue Code.10Internal Revenue Service. 35.1.1 Tax Court Jurisdiction and Proceedings
- The U.S. Court of Appeals for Veterans Claims, which has exclusive jurisdiction to review decisions of the Board of Veterans’ Appeals on disability compensation, pension benefits, and other VA matters.11Legal Information Institute. United States Court of Appeals for Veterans Claims
- The U.S. Court of Appeals for the Armed Forces, which reviews court-martial convictions under the Uniform Code of Military Justice and exercises worldwide jurisdiction over active-duty service members.12Legal Information Institute. United States Court of Appeals for the Armed Forces
Other Specialized Bodies
Two more forums sit outside the general-jurisdiction courts. The Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court, established in 1978, reviews government applications for electronic surveillance, physical searches, and other investigative actions involving foreign intelligence.13Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court. Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court The Copyright Claims Board, a newer body within the U.S. Copyright Office, handles infringement and related copyright disputes, with total damages capped at $30,000 per claim.14U.S. Copyright Office. About the Copyright Claims Board
The Judges Who Staff Them
Congress has authorized roughly 870 Article III judgeships across the federal system.8United States Courts. Types of Federal Judges Article III judges are nominated by the president, confirmed by the Senate, and serve “during good Behavior,” which in practice means for life.15Congress.gov. U.S. Constitution Article III There is no mandatory retirement age; removal requires impeachment by the House and conviction by the Senate. When an Article III judge reaches a combination of age and years of service equal to 80 (with a minimum of 10 years on the bench), they become eligible for “senior status,” carrying a reduced caseload while their seat opens for a new appointment.
District courts do not run on Article III judges alone. Magistrate judges handle much of the daily workload, including pretrial motions, discovery disputes, detention hearings, and trials for minor criminal offenses. With consent from the parties, a magistrate judge can preside over an entire civil trial and enter judgment.8United States Courts. Types of Federal Judges They are appointed by the district court’s judges for renewable eight-year terms, or four years for part-time positions, and must have at least five years of bar membership in good standing.